Deceit & Misrepresentation Leuchter, Rudolf and the Iron Blues v. 6.0N
Recently a number of "forensic" reports presented by Holocaust-deniers
purport to show that homicidal gassings at Auschwitz-Birkenau (AB) did
not occur. The agent of murder in the gas chambers of AB was Zyklon-B.
Zyklon-B is a solid support impregnated with hydrogen cyanide. A
discussion of the chemistry of mass murder with Zyklon-B as well as an
analysis of several of these pseudoscientific reports and a real
forensic analysis don by the Institute for Forensic Research in Cracow
(IFRC) can be found in the article The
Chemistry of Auschwitz.
Germar Rudolf 1 among
others has made the claim that homicidal gassings could not have
occurred in the homicidal gas chambers of AB. His argument relies on
the fact that there is blue staining present on facilities where
Zyklon-B was used for delousing but no apparent staining in the
facilities in which Zyklon-B was used for homicidal purposes. He claims
to have measured more cyanide content in the stained walls than in the
unstained walls and concludes that the levels of cyanide present in the
homicidal gas chambers are not consistent with homicidal gassing.
Leuchter 2 has also made
analogous measurements with analogous claims.
The purpose of this essay is to look closer at this blue staining, what
it is, how it could have formed, and whether its absence in the
homicidal gas chambers of AB can reasonably be interpreted to mean that
homicidal gassings did not take place there. Owing to the fact that
Rudolf and Leuchter did not discriminate against iron blue compounds,
the fact that they measure more cyanide compounds in the delousing
chambers than in the homicidal gas chambers is functionally no different
than the observation that the blue-staining is present in the delousing
chambers and not in the homicidal chambers. In other words, they have
found nothing by measurement that is not apparent without measurement.
By a carefully thought out experiment, Markiewicz, Gubala, and Labedz
have provided real information.
The fact that there is obvious blue-staining in the delousing chambers
and not in the homicidal chambers of AB is not in dispute here. It
should be mentioned, however, that at the Majdanek death camp there is
indeed blue-staining on the homicidal gas chambers. 4,5 Additionally, the staining is
not present on all known delousing chambers. One is left immediately to
ponder why it would be argued that such staining is a necessary
consequence of the use of hydrogen cyanide (HCN).
Owing to the fact that he cannot think of a mechanism by which the
Prussian blue could form from iron in its third oxidation state (as
present in brick), Bailer 6
speculates that the presence of iron blues may be because of paint
rather than exposure to HCN vapor (iron blues are commonly used as
pigments in paints). Bailer's speculation, although it is certainly more
reasonable than the claims of Rudolf that homicidal gassings did not
occur at AB, must still be viewed with skepticism. If paint was indeed
used on these facilities, it should be possible to find evidence that
such paint was purchased and applied. The paint hypothesis needs more
evidence to support it, if it is to be believed.
A few points should be made clear:
This argument neglects the fact that hydrogen cyanide is a weak acid
that can form salts, such as potassium cyanide, fails to address the
binding of chemisorption, or the formation of other cyanide compounds;
yet the point is not completely without merit. More significant,
perhaps, is the fact that cyanide salts are highly water soluble unlike
Prussian blue. Markiewicz et al. report that they were not
optimistic at being able to detect cyanides so many years after exposure
to HCN. Owing to the fact that they had legal access to their samples,
however, they were able to plan sample collection in a manner likely to
detect cyanides in locations that were relatively sheltered from the
elements. The fact that they measured traces of cyanide not bound to
iron in the homicidal gas chambers at levels above those observe in
other buildings disproves the claims that such traces would not be
measurable
In order for Leuchter or Rudolf to demonstrate the significance of their
findings, it is necessary for them to prove the necessity of Prussian
blue formation under the conditions that the homicidal gas chambers were
operated. Showing that the delousing chambers have Prussian blue and
that the homicidal gas chambers do not, proves nothing, if it cannot be
shown that conditions in the gas chambers were such as to produce
Prussian blue. I shall therefore turn my attention to Prussian blue,
its formation and the conditions present in the gas chambers.
There are 3 methods generally used for the preparation of soluble iron
blues described by Holtzman. 8 Insoluble blues can be
prepared by subsequent reaction of soluble blues with various metal
cations (See table II in Holtzman).
The three methods are
It should be noted that it is necessary to produce iron in a mixture
of oxidation states or perhaps in a resonance structure of mixed states.
Bailer argues for the improbability of Prussian blue formation for
exactly that reason.
What the reducing agent is, however, may be academic.
The relevant question is whether such a mechanism to form Prussian blue
would necessarily have been operative in the gas chambers.
Alich et al. show that Prussian Blue does not form in water
unless there is an excess of CN- ions compared to Fe(III) or
very basic conditions.
Now comes the important part:
Most importantly one must recall that the gas chambers were hosed down
with water after gassings to clean up blood and excrement.15 Considering that the ambient
water would have been quite small, providing 100 times dilution would
have been trivial. This effect may actually be the explanation for the
presence/absence of Prussian blue in the delousing/homicidal gas
chambers, but some further research will be necessary to support this
supposition conclusively.
Prussian blue formation is exceedingly sensitive to concentration and
also to pH. Very small effects could tip the balance between whether
Prussian blue forms or not. Alich et al. found a strong pH
dependence to the reaction. The presence of human beings in the gas
chambers could also help tip the balance. CO2 is an acid
anhydride and there would have been a lot of it in the homicidal
chambers. An acid anhydride is a substance that increases the acidity
of a solution when it becomes solvated. Even atmospheric concentrations
of CO2 (at 360 ppm today, about 330 ppm then) are sufficient
to cause pure rain water to have a pH of 5.6. Human beings exhale about
4% CO2, so the pH could be quite a bit lower.
For example at 2 % CO2 the pH would be below 4.8. Appendix II derives the relationship between
carbon dioxide concentration and pH.
Low pH inhibits the reaction. Additionally, a lower pH will drive the
HCN from solution, making the CN- more dilute at the outset.
These considerations may be somewhat mitigated by the use of limewash
(Ca(OH)2) which is slightly water soluble and could boost the
pH. A pure solution of Ca(OH)2 can reach a pH as high as 12
(Cf. Merck Index), but coatings with limewash hardly provide such
conditions.
Another point should be noted here. The conditions outlined here are
for the formation of Prussian blue in the presence of cyanide ions and
Fe(CN)63-. In the gas chambers Fe(III) would have
been present in the brickwork and cyanide ions from the HCN itself, but
Alich et. al. note: "The spectra of solutions containing only
Fe(III) and CN- ion indicated only the acid hydrolysis of
Fe(III)." .16 Prussian
blue did not form.
The experimental evidence that Prussian blue formation is not a
necessity with the presence of HCN and construction materials is
strong. Markiewicz et al. 17 were not able to produce
such pigments in experiments with HCN and building materials.
Additionally, Rudolf did an experiment in which he exposed a brick to
HCN and yet found no detectable level of cyanides whatsoever.. 18 These failures to produce
Prussian blue are sufficient to demonstrate that its formation at
detectable levels is not a necessary result of exposure to HCN.
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The Techniques of Holocaust Denial
Writer: Richard Green
ABSTRACT: Leuchter and Rudolf have published pseudoscientific
reports purporting to show that chemical residues president in the gas
chambers of Auschwitz-Birkenau are incompatible with homicidal
gassings. Markiewicz, Gubala, and Labedz have shown unequivocally that
cyanides are present in Kremas I-V and bunker 11, at levels above
background levels measured in other facilities. Many of the delousing
chambers exhibit blue-staining that is not obviously present in the
homicidal gas chambers. Leuchter and Rudolf found higher levels of
cyanide in these installations than they found in the homicidal gas
chambers. The blue-staining present in the delousing chambers is most
likely one of the iron blues, a class of compound including Prussian
blue. Markiewicz, Gubala, and Labedz discriminated against the presence
of this compound, whereas Leuchter and Rudolf did not. The findings of
Leuchter and Rudolf do not contain much information beyond what is
already obvious to the naked eye. Understanding the formation of
Prussian blue is essential to understanding the importance of the
findings of Markiewicz, Gubala, and Labedz. Industrial methods of
producing Prussian blue are reviewed briefly. Rudolf's proposed
mechanism of Prussian blue formation is examined. It is unlikely that
Prussian blue would have formed in the gas chambers under the conditions
under which they were operated. Slight variation in conditions could
change that probability and that is perhaps the explanation for the
presence of Prussian blue in the delousing chambers and the gas chamber
at Majdanek. Alich et al. Found that the formation of Prussian blue is
extremely sensitive to cyanide concentration and pH. Several attempts
to make Prussian blue form exposing construction materials to HCN
failed. The burden of proof that Prussian blue must have formed under
the conditions present in the gas chambers in on the deniers.
Presence of Cyanides in Gassing Facilities and Apparent Absence
of Prussian Blue
Markiewicz, Gubala, and Labedz of the Institute for Forensic Research,
Cracow demonstrated that HCN was present in the homicidal gas chambers,
i.e., Krema I, Krema II, Krema III, Krema IV, Krema V, and
the cellars of Bunker 11, at levels above other facilities in the AB
complex. 3 They took
several samples from Bunker 11, and Kremas I-V. They found levels
of cyanide significantly higher than background levels in all of these
sites of homicidal gassing. They used a carefully calibrated method
in which their calibration curve was checked with known standards in the
process of running the sample. The analysis was conducted by a
separate team from the sample collection team to insure objectivity.
Unlike the Holocaust-deniers, they used a carefully calibrated method
that discriminated against the iron blue compounds, such as Prussian
blue , that are believed to be responsible for the above-mentioned
staining.
Prussian blue once formed is much less susceptible to weathering than
are other forms of cyanides. Rudolf himself acknowleges this fact:
4
If the hydrocyanic acid from the Zyklon B had bonded with the
brickwork only through the process of adsorption, then due to the
volatility of hydrocyanic acid (boiling point: 25.7C) it would no longer
be possible today to detect any hydrocyanic acid residues in the
remaining walls.
The Iron Blues and Their Industrial Preparation
There are a number of compounds known colloquially as the "iron blues."
Insoluble Prussian Blue, for example, is
Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3. It can be
formed by the addition of Fe(II) to
[Fe(III)(CN)6]-3. 7 It should be noted here
that the distinction between soluble and insoluble is a matter of the
ease with which the compound forms colloidal suspensions rather than any
real difference in solubility. 7 This point is important
when addressing the possible degradation of Prussian blue. While I will
not argue that degradation of Prussian blue is the cause of its absence
from the homicidal gas chambers, this hypothesis should not be rejected
as a possibility out of hand.
Rudolf's Proposed Mechanism
Rudolf, 1,4 in his own persona and also under
the alias 9 "E. Gauss," 10 has with some bombast
criticized Bailer for not noting the possibility that HCN itself could
be the reducing agent responsible for converting iron (III) into iron
(II). Even stranger synthesis of iron blues have been reported. 11
Rudolf cites in support of his claim a paper by Alich, Howarth, and
Johnson.12 Apparently, did
not read this paper very carefully. The authors investigate the
reduction of [Fe(CN)6]3- by aqueous and ethanolic
solutions of CN-. They suggest that CN- is indeed
the reducing agent, but their inability to observe CNO- must
suggest that this claim is inconclusive. DeWet and Rolle have claimed
that Fe(III)Fe(III)(CN)6 can be reduced to a Prussian blue
compound with water. 13
The observation by Alich et al. that addition of water inhibits
the reaction, perhaps, makes the supposition that HCN is the reducing
agent more plausible despite their inability to observe
CNO-
The dilution of the absolute stock solutions of Fe(III) and
Fe(CN)63-with absolute ethanol gave the red
complex which persisted for about 1 hour, as compared to the
disappearance of the red complex in the aqueous media at a dilution of
3.3 * 10-4 M. The red complex in ethanol darkened within the
hour and reduction to Prussian Blue was complete in 2 days (Fig. 3).
It is to be noted that the complex in aqueous solution, under the same
conditions, decomposes immediately, the spectrum reverting to that of
the Fe(CN)63- ion. Furthermore, addition of as
little as 13% water (by volume) caused the red complex to decompose,
giving a spectrum of the Fe(CN)63-
ion.
Conditions in the Homicidal Gas chambers at Auschwitz Birkenau.
In other words, Prussian blue only forms with very high concentrations
of CN-. The concentrations in the gas chambers were such
that ambient water at equilibrium might at most have reached
concentrations on the order of 0.1 M as shown in Appendix I That such an equilibrium
concentration could have been reached during the time span of an actual
gassing is doubtful. This concentration is the equilibrium value.
Absorption of HCN by water would undoubtedly be kinetically limited,
i.e., the concentration would be limited by how fast the
absorption process can occur. The equilibrium concentration assumes
that the water has been exposed to HCN long enough that the rate of HCN
leaving solution into the gas phase is equal to the rate at which HCN
from the gas phase is being absorbed by the water.
Conclusion
Whereas it would be premature to claim that I have explained why
Prussian blue is present in the delousing chambers and not in the gas
chambers, I have certainly shown that Rudolf's proposed mechanism is
unlikely to have been operative in the homicidal gas chambers. More
importantly, I have shown that the formation of Prussian blue is subject
to very subtle influences of the conditions present. Slight changes in
condition may have been sufficient to push the balance one way or the
other. Yet the burden of proof here lies with the deniers. They claim
to prove that gassings could not have occurred in the gas
chambers. To make such an argument, they need to demonstrate that their
proposed mechanism of Prussian blue formation must be operative
in the gas chambers under the precise conditions under which they were
operated. Their task in daunting. Any claim made on the basis of the
absence of Prussian blue is at best empty speculation. Add to that the
evidence that cyanides were indeed present in the homicidal gas
chambers, that witnesses claim that gassings took place there, that the
perpetrators admitted to their crimes, and that 1 to 1.5 million people
were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau and never returned and we can label
Rudolf's work willful distortion of the evidence.